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Chart of the Morse code letters and numerals. Morse code is a method of transmitting information as a series of on-off tones, lights, or clicks that can be directly understood by a skilled listener or observer without special equipment. It is named for, an inventor of the. The International Morse Code encodes the, some extra Latin letters, the and a small set of punctuation and procedural signals () as standardized sequences of short and long signals called 'dots' and 'dashes', or 'dits' and 'dahs', as in practice. Because many non-English natural languages use more than the 26 Roman letters, extensions to the Morse alphabet exist for those languages. Each Morse code symbol represents either a text character (letter or numeral) or a prosign and is represented by a unique sequence of dots and dashes. The dot duration is the basic unit of time measurement in code transmission.

The duration of a dash is three times the duration of a dot. Each dot or dash is followed by a short silence, equal to the dot duration. The letters of a word are a space equal to three dots (one dash), and the words are separated by a space equal to seven dots. To increase the speed of the communication, the code was designed so that in English. Thus the most common letter in English, the letter 'E', has the shortest code, a single dot. Morse code is used by some, although knowledge of and proficiency with it is no longer required for in most countries.

And usually need only a cursory understanding. Aeronautical, such as and, constantly identify in Morse code. Compared to voice, Morse code is less sensitive to poor signal conditions, yet still comprehensible to humans without a decoding device. Morse is, therefore, a useful alternative to synthesized speech for sending automated data to skilled listeners on voice channels. Many, for example, identify with Morse, even though they are used for voice communications.

Morse code receiver, recording on paper tape Beginning in 1836, the American artist, the American, and developed an system. This system sent pulses of along wires which controlled an that was located at the receiving end of the telegraph system. A code was needed to transmit natural language using only these pulses, and the silence between them. Around 1837, Morse, therefore, developed an early forerunner to the modern International Morse code.

Around the same time, and (1833) as well as (1837) had already used codes with varying word lengths for their telegraphs. Since around 1800, European experimenters had been making progress with earlier battery-powered signaling systems in emitting oxygen and hydrogen bubbles through liquid, flipping magnetic semaphore flags, tripping alarms across long distances over wire, and other techniques. The numerous ingenious experimental encoding designs they devised and demonstrated were telegraphic precursors to practical applications. In 1837, and in began using an electrical telegraph that also used electromagnets in its receivers. However, in contrast with any system of making sounds of clicks, their system used pointing needles that rotated above alphabetical charts to indicate the letters that were being sent. In 1841, Cooke and Wheatstone built a telegraph that printed the letters from a wheel of typefaces struck by a hammer. This machine was based on their 1840 telegraph and worked well; however, they failed to find customers for this system and only two examples were ever built.

On the other hand, the three Americans' system for, which was first used in about 1844, was designed to make indentations on a paper tape when electric currents were received. Morse's original telegraph receiver used a mechanical clockwork to move a paper tape. When an electrical current was received, an electromagnet engaged an armature that pushed a stylus onto the moving paper tape, making an indentation on the tape. When the current was interrupted, a spring retracted the stylus, and that portion of the moving tape remained unmarked.

The Morse code was developed so that operators could translate the indentations marked on the paper tape into text messages. In his earliest code, Morse had planned to transmit only numerals, and to use a codebook to look up each word according to the number which had been sent. However, the code was soon expanded by in 1840 to include letters and special characters, so it could be used more generally.

Vail estimated the frequency of use of letters in the by counting the movable type he found in the type-cases of a local newspaper in. The shorter marks were called 'dots', and the longer ones 'dashes', and the letters most commonly used were assigned the shorter sequences of dots and dashes. This code was used since 1844 and became known as Morse landline code. Navy Morse Code training class in 2015. The sailors will use their new skills to collect.

Morse code was used as an international standard for maritime distress until 1999 when it was replaced by the. When the ceased using Morse code on January 31, 1997, the final message transmitted was 'Calling all.

This is our last cry before our eternal silence.' In the United States the final commercial Morse code transmission was on July 12, 1999, signing off with Samuel Morse's original 1844 message, ', and the ' SK'. As of 2015, the still trains ten people a year in Morse. The has ceased all use of Morse code on the radio, and no longer monitors any for Morse code transmissions, including the international medium frequency (MF) distress frequency of. However, the still grants commercial radiotelegraph operator licenses to applicants who pass its code and written tests. Licensees have reactivated the old California coastal Morse station and regularly transmit from the site under either this or as KSM.

Similarly, a few US stations are operated by Morse enthusiasts. User proficiency. A commercially manufactured iambic paddle used in conjunction with an electronic keyer to generate high-speed Morse code, the timing of which is controlled by the electronic keyer. Manipulation of dual-lever paddles is similar to the, but pressing the right paddle generates a series of dahs, and squeezing the paddles produces dit-dah-dit-dah sequence. The actions are reversed for left-handed operators.

Morse code speed is measured in (wpm) or characters per minute (cpm). Characters have differing lengths because they contain differing numbers of dots and dashes. Consequently, words also have different lengths in terms of dot duration, even when they contain the same number of characters. For this reason, a standard word is helpful to measure operator transmission speed. 'PARIS' and 'CODEX' are two such standard words.

Operators skilled in Morse code can often understand ('copy') code in their heads at rates in excess of 40 wpm. In addition to knowing, understanding, and being able to copy the standard written alpha-numeric and punctuation characters or symbols at high speeds, skilled high speed operators must also be fully knowledgeable of all of the special unwritten Morse code symbols for the standard and the meanings of these special procedural signals in standard Morse code. International contests in code copying are still occasionally held. In July 1939 at a contest in in the United States set a still-standing record for Morse copying, 75.2 wpm. William Pierpont N0HFF also notes that some operators may have passed 100 wpm. By this time, they are 'hearing' phrases and sentences rather than words.

The fastest speed ever sent by a straight key was achieved in 1942 by Harry Turner W9YZE (d. 1992) who reached 35 wpm in a demonstration at a U.S. To accurately compare code copying speed records of different eras it is useful to keep in mind that different standard words (50 dot durations versus 60 dot durations) and different interword gaps (5 dot durations versus 7 dot durations) may have been used when determining such speed records. For example, speeds run with the CODEX standard word and the PARIS standard may differ by up to 20%.

Today among amateur operators there are several organizations that recognize high-speed code ability, one group consisting of those who can copy Morse at 60 wpm. Also, Certificates of Code Proficiency are issued by several amateur radio societies, including the. Their basic award starts at 10 wpm with endorsements as high as 40 wpm, and are available to anyone who can copy the transmitted text. Members of the may put a Morse interpreter's strip on their uniforms if they meet the standards for translating code at 5 wpm.

International Morse Code Morse code has been in use for more than 160 years—longer than any other coding system. What is called Morse code today is actually somewhat different from what was originally developed by Vail and Morse. The Modern International Morse code, or continental code, was created by in 1848 and initially used for telegraphy between and in Germany. Gerke changed nearly half of the alphabet and all of the, providing the foundation for the modern form of the code. After some minor changes, International Morse Code was standardized at the International Telegraphy Congress in 1865 in Paris and was later made the standard by the (ITU).

Morse's original code specification, largely limited to use in the United States and Canada, became known as American Morse code or railroad code. American Morse code is now seldom used except in historical re-enactments. Aviation In, instrument pilots use aids.

To ensure that the stations the pilots are using are serviceable, the stations all transmit a short set of identification letters (usually a two-to-five-letter version of the station name) in Morse code. Station identification letters are shown on air navigation charts.

For example, the based at in England is abbreviated as 'MCT', and MCT in Morse code is on its radio frequency. In some countries, during periods of maintenance, the facility may radiate a T-E-S-T code ( ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄ ▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄) or the code may be removed which tells and that the station is unreliable. In Canada, the identification is removed entirely to signify the navigation aid is not to be used. In the aviation service, Morse is typically sent at a very slow speed of about 5 words per minute.

In the U.S., pilots do not actually have to know Morse to identify the transmitter because the dot/dash sequence is written out next to the transmitter's symbol on aeronautical charts. Some modern navigation receivers automatically translate the code into displayed letters. Brand semiautomatic key (generically called a 'bug'). The paddle, when pressed to the right by the thumb, generates a series of dits, the length and timing of which are controlled by a sliding weight toward the rear of the unit.

When pressed to the left by the knuckle of the index finger, the paddle generates a single dah, the length of which is controlled by the operator. Football Manager 2008 Full Torrent Indir there. Multiple dahs require multiple presses.

Left-handed operators use a key built as a mirror image of this one. International Morse code today is most popular among operators, in the mode commonly referred to as ' or 'CW'. (This name was chosen to distinguish it from the emissions from spark transmitters, not because the transmission is continuous.) Other keying methods are available in radio telegraphy, such as. The original amateur radio operators used Morse code exclusively since voice-capable radio transmitters did not become commonly available until around 1920.

Until 2003, the mandated Morse code proficiency as part of the amateur radio licensing procedure worldwide. However, the World Radiocommunication Conference of 2003 made the Morse code requirement for amateur radio licensing optional.

Many countries subsequently removed the Morse requirement from their licence requirements. Until 1991, a demonstration of the ability to send and receive Morse code at a minimum of five words per minute (wpm) was required to receive an amateur radio license for use in the United States from the. Demonstration of this ability was still required for the privilege to use the. Until 2000, proficiency at the 20 wpm level was required to receive the highest level of amateur license (Amateur Extra Class); effective April 15, 2000, the FCC reduced the Extra Class requirement to five wpm.

Finally, effective on February 23, 2007, the FCC eliminated the Morse code proficiency requirements from all amateur radio licenses. While voice and data transmissions are limited to specific amateur radio bands under U.S. Rules, Morse code is permitted on all amateur bands—,, HF, VHF, and UHF. In some countries, certain portions of the amateur radio bands are reserved for transmission of Morse code signals only. The relatively limited speed at which Morse code can be sent led to the development of an extensive number of abbreviations to speed communication.

These include prosigns,, and a set of for typical message components. For example, CQ is broadcast to be interpreted as 'seek you' (I'd like to converse with anyone who can hear my signal). OM (old man), YL (young lady) and XYL ('ex-YL' – wife) are common abbreviations. YL or OM is used by an operator when referring to the other operator, XYL or OM is used by an operator when referring to his or her spouse. QTH is 'location' ('My QTH' is 'My location'). The use of abbreviations for common terms permits conversation even when the operators speak different languages. Although the traditional (straight key) is still used by some amateurs, the use of mechanical semi-automatic (known as 'bugs') and of fully automatic electronic is prevalent today.

Is also frequently employed to produce and decode Morse code radio signals. Navy sends Morse code signals in 2005. Through May 2013, the First, Second, and Third Class (commercial) Radiotelegraph Licenses using code tests based upon the CODEX standard word were still being issued in the United States by the Federal Communications Commission. The First Class license required 20 WPM code group and 25 WPM text code proficiency, the others 16 WPM code group test (five letter blocks sent as simulation of receiving encrypted text) and 20 WPM code text (plain language) test. It was also necessary to pass written tests on operating practice and electronics theory.

A unique additional demand for the First Class was a requirement of a year of experience for operators of shipboard and coast stations using Morse. This allowed the holder to be chief operator on board a passenger ship. However, since 1999 the use of satellite and very high-frequency maritime communications systems () has made them obsolete. (By that point meeting experience requirement for the First was very difficult.) Currently, only one class of license, the Radiotelegraph Operator License, is issued. This is granted either when the tests are passed or as the Second and First are renewed and become this lifetime license. For new applicants, it requires passing a written examination on electronic theory and radiotelegraphy practices, as well as 16 WPM codegroup and 20 WPM text tests.

However, the code exams are currently waived for holders of Amateur Extra Class licenses who obtained their operating privileges under the old 20 WPM test requirement. Radio navigation aids such as and for aeronautical use broadcast identifying information in the form of Morse Code, though many VOR stations now also provide voice identification. Warships, including those of the, have long used to exchange messages in Morse code. Modern use continues, in part, as a way to communicate while maintaining.

ATIS uses Morse code to identify uplink sources of analog satellite transmissions. Applications for the general public. Representation of SOS-Morse code.

An important application is signalling for help through, ' ▄▄▄ ▄▄ ▄▄ ▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄ ▄▄ ▄▄ ▄▄ ▄'. This can be sent many ways: keying a radio on and off, flashing a mirror, toggling a flashlight, and similar methods. SOS is not three separate characters, rather, it is a prosign SOS, and is keyed without gaps between characters. Some mobile phones offer an option [ ] to alert the user of an incoming text message with the Morse tone ' ▄▄▄ ▄▄ ▄▄ ▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄ ▄▄ ▄▄ ▄▄ ▄' (representing or Short Message Service).

In addition, applications are now available for mobile phones that enable short messages to be input in Morse Code. Morse code as an assistive technology Morse code has been employed as an, helping people with a variety of to communicate.

Morse can be sent by persons with severe motion disabilities, as long as they have some minimal motor control. An original solution to the problem that caretakers have to learn to decode has been an electronic typewriter with the codes written on the keys.

Codes were sung by users; see the voice typewriter employing morse or votem, Newell and Nabarro, 1968. Morse code can also be translated by computer and used in a speaking communication aid. In some cases, this means alternately blowing into and sucking on a plastic tube (' interface). An important advantage of Morse code over is that once learned, it does not require looking at a display. Also, it appears faster than scanning.

People with severe motion disabilities in addition to sensory disabilities (e.g. People who are also deaf or blind) can receive Morse through a skin buzzer. In one case reported in the radio amateur magazine, an old shipboard radio operator who had a and lost the ability to speak or write could communicate with his physician (a radio amateur) by blinking his eyes in Morse. Two examples of communication in intensive care units were also published in, Another example occurred in 1966 when, brought on television by his North Vietnamese captors, Morse-blinked the word TORTURE. In these two cases, interpreters were available to understand those series of eye-blinks. Representation, timing, and speeds.

'A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z' in Morse code at 8 wpm. Problems playing this file? This section includes inline links to audio files. If you have trouble playing the files, see. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 123456789 M------ O---------- R------ S---- E C---------- O---------- D------ E ===.===.===.===.===.=.===.=.=.=.=.=.===.=.===.=.===.===.===.===.=.=.= ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ dah dit symbol space letter space word space Spoken representation Morse code is often spoken or written with 'dah' for dashes, 'dit' for dots located at the end of a character, and 'di' for dots located at the beginning or internally within the character. Thus, the following Morse code sequence: M O R S E C O D E −− −−− − (space) −− −−− − is orally: Dah-dah dah-dah-dah di-dah-dit di-di-dit dit, Dah-di-dah-dit dah-dah-dah dah-di-dit dit.

There is little point in learning to read written Morse as above; rather, the sounds of all of the letters and symbols need to be learned, for both sending and receiving. Speed in words per minute All Morse code elements depend on the dot length. A dash is the length of 3 dots, and spacings are specified in number of dot lengths. An unambiguous method of specifying the transmission speed is to specify the dot duration as, for example, 50 milliseconds. Specifying the dot duration is, however, not the common practice.

Usually, speeds are stated in words per minute. That introduces ambiguity because words have different numbers of characters, and characters have different dot lengths. It is not immediately clear how a specific word rate determines the dot duration in milliseconds. Some method to standardize the transformation of a word rate to a dot duration is useful. A simple way to do this is to choose a dot duration that would send a typical word the desired number of times in one minute. If, for example, the operator wanted a character speed of 13 words per minute, the operator would choose a dot rate that would send the typical word 13 times in exactly one minute. The typical word thus determines the dot length.

It is common to assume that a word is 5 characters long. There are two common typical words: 'PARIS' and 'CODEX'.

PARIS mimics a word rate that is typical of natural language words and reflects the benefits of Morse code's shorter code durations for common characters such as 'e' and 't'. CODEX offers a word rate that is typical of 5-letter code groups (sequences of random letters). Using the word PARIS as a standard, the number of dot units is 50 and a simple calculation shows that the dot length at 20 words per minute is 60 milliseconds. Using the word CODEX with 60 dot units, the dot length at 20 words per minute is 50 milliseconds.

Because Morse code is usually sent by hand, it is unlikely that an operator could be that precise with the dot length, and the individual characteristics and preferences of the operators usually override the standards. For commercial radiotelegraph licenses in the United States, the Federal Communications Commission specifies tests for Morse code proficiency in words per minute and in code groups per minute. The Commission specifies that a word is 5 characters long. The Commission specifies Morse code test elements at 16 code groups per minute, 20 words per minute, 20 code groups per minute, and 25 words per minute.

The word per minute rate would be close to the PARIS standard, and the code groups per minute would be close to the CODEX standard. While the Federal Communications Commission no longer requires Morse code for amateur radio licenses, the old requirements were similar to the requirements for commercial radiotelegraph licenses.

A difference between amateur radio licenses and commercial radiotelegraph licenses is that commercial operators must be able to receive code groups of random characters along with plain language text. For each class of license, the code group speed requirement is slower than the plain language text requirement. For example, for the Radiotelegraph Operator License, the examinee must pass a 20 word per minute plain text test and a 16 word per minute code group test. Based upon a 50 dot duration standard word such as PARIS, the time for one dot duration or one unit can be computed by the formula: T = 1200 / W Where: T is the unit time, or dot duration in milliseconds, and W is the speed in.

Contests are held; according to the in June 2005 at the 's 6th World Championship in High Speed Telegraphy in Primorsko, Bulgaria, Andrei Bindasov of Belarus transmitted 230 morse code marks of mixed text in one minute. Farnsworth speed Sometimes, especially while teaching Morse code, the timing rules above are changed so two different speeds are used: a character speed and a text speed. The character speed is how fast each individual letter is sent. The text speed is how fast the entire message is sent. For example, individual characters may be sent at a 13 words-per-minute rate, but the intercharacter and interword gaps may be lengthened so the word rate is only 5 words per minute. Using different character and text speeds is, in fact, a common practice, and is used in the Farnsworth method of.

Alternative display of common characters in International Morse code. Graphical representation of the dichotomic search table.

The graph branches left for each dot and right for each dash until the character representation is exhausted. Link budget issues Morse Code cannot be treated as a classical (RTTY) signal when it comes to calculating a or a for the simple reason of it possessing variable length dots and dashes as well as variant timing between letters and words. For the purposes of and comparisons, the word PARIS is used to determine Morse Code's properties because it has an even number of dots and dashes. Morse Code, when transmitted essentially, creates an AM signal (even in on/off keying mode), assumptions about signal can be made with respect to similarly timed signalling. Because Morse code transmissions employ an radio signal, it requires less complex transmission equipment than other forms of radio communication.

Morse code also requires less than voice communication, typically 100–150, compared to the roughly 2400 Hz used by, although at a lower data rate. Morse code is usually heard at the receiver as a medium-pitched on/off audio tone (600–1000 Hz), so transmissions are easier to copy than voice through the noise on congested frequencies, and it can be used in very high noise / low signal environments. The transmitted power is concentrated into a limited bandwidth so narrow receiver filters can be used to suppress interference from adjacent frequencies. The audio tone is usually created by use of a. The narrow signal bandwidth also takes advantage of the natural aural selectivity of the human brain, further enhancing weak signal readability. This efficiency makes CW extremely useful for, as well as for low-power transmissions (commonly called ', from the for 'reduce power').

The has a readability standard for robot encoders called ARRL Farnsworth Spacing that is supposed to have higher readability for both robot and human decoders. Some programs like WinMorse have implemented the standard. Learning methods People learning Morse code using the Farnsworth method are taught to send and receive letters and other symbols at their full target speed, that is with normal relative timing of the dots, dashes, and spaces within each symbol for that speed. The Farnsworth method is named for Donald R. 'Russ' Farnsworth, also known by his, W6TTB. However, initially exaggerated spaces between symbols and words are used, to give 'thinking time' to make the sound 'shape' of the letters and symbols easier to learn.

The spacing can then be reduced with practice and familiarity. Another popular teaching method is the Koch method, named after German psychologist Ludwig Koch, which uses the full target speed from the outset but begins with just two characters. Once strings containing those two characters can be copied with 90% accuracy, an additional character is added, and so on until the full character set is mastered. In North America, many thousands of individuals have increased their code recognition speed (after initial memorization of the characters) by listening to the regularly scheduled code practice transmissions broadcast by, the American Radio Relay League's headquarters station.

Apple Logic Board Serial Number Lookup. [ ] Mnemonics. Movement founder mnemonic chart from 1918 Visual mnemonic charts have been devised over the ages. Included one in the handbook in 1918. In the United Kingdom, many people learned the Morse code by means of a series of words or phrases that have the same rhythm as a Morse character. For instance, 'Q' in Morse is dah-dah-di-dah, which can be memorized by the phrase 'God save the Queen', and the Morse for 'F' is di-di-dah-dit, which can be memorized as 'Did she like it.' A well-known Morse code rhythm from the Second World War period derives from 's, the opening phrase of which was regularly played at the beginning of BBC broadcasts.

The timing of the notes corresponds to the Morse for 'V', di-di-di-dah, understood as 'V for Victory' (as well as the Roman numeral for the number five). Letters, numbers, punctuation, prosigns for Morse code and non-English variants Category Character Code Letters.

Main article: Prosigns for Morse code are special (usually) unwritten procedural signals or symbols that are used to indicate changes in status or text formatting actions. Symbol representations The symbols!, $ and & are not defined inside the ITU recommendation on Morse code, but conventions for them exist. The @ symbol was formally added in 2004. Exclamation mark There is no standard representation for the exclamation mark (!), although the KW ( ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄ ▄▄▄▄ ▄▄ ▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄ ▄) was proposed in the 1980s by the Company (a vendor of assembly kits for amateur radio equipment). While Morse code translation software prefers the Heathkit version, on-air use is not yet universal as some amateur radio operators in North America and the Caribbean continue to prefer the older MN digraph ( ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄ ▄▄ ▄) carried over from American landline telegraphy code. Currency symbols • The ITU has never codified formal Morse Code representations for currencies as the Currency Codes are preferred for transmission. • The $ sign code was represented in the, a huge collection of abbreviations used on land line telegraphy, as SX.

Ampersand • The representation of the & sign given above, often shown as AS, is also the Morse prosign for wait. In addition, the American landline representation of an ampersand was similar to 'ES' ( ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄ ▄▄ ▄) and hams have carried over this usage as a synonym for 'and' (WX HR COLD ES RAINY, 'the weather here is cold & rainy'). Keyboard AT @ • On May 24, 2004 — the 160th anniversary of the first public Morse telegraph transmission — the Radiocommunication Bureau of the International Telecommunication Union () formally added the @ (' or 'commat') character to the official Morse character set, using the sequence denoted by the AC digraph ( ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄ ▄▄ ▄▄▄▄ ▄▄ ▄). • This sequence was reportedly chosen to represent 'A[T] C[OMMERCIAL]' or a letter 'a' inside a swirl represented by a 'C'. The new character facilitates sending addresses by Morse code and is notable since it is the first official addition to the Morse set of characters since. Non-Latin extensions. International Telecommunication Union.

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Curt, 'In the Blink of an Eye,' QST, July 1990 p. • Donna Burch, 'Morse Code from the Heart,' QST July 1990 p. • Ken Beauchamp, History of Telegraphy, Institution of Electrical Engineers IET, 2001 page 150 • Title 47 Code of Federal Regulations §13.207(c) and Title 47 Code of Federal Regulations §13.209(d) • 47 CFR §13.203(b) • Title 47 Code of Federal Regulations §97.503, 1996 version •. Retrieved 1 December 2017. Retrieved 1 December 2017.

Retrieved 2013-11-21. Retrieved 2015-09-06. Some people find it easier to remember the does [sic] and dashes by picturing them as forming the letters— thus:— (p61) • Glenn Stanley,, p.269, Cambridge University Press, 2000. • William Emmett Studwell, The Americana Song Reader, p.62, Routledge, 1997. Archived from on September 30, 2007. Retrieved February 27, 2007. • Wythoff, Grant (July 2014)..

The Appendix: Futures of the Past. Retrieved 2015-01-28. Retrieved 2013-11-21. Retrieved 1 December 2017. Retrieved 2016-09-17. Bibliography • Burns, R. (2004), Communications: an international history of the formative years, Institution of Electrical Engineers, External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to.

• at Curlie (based on ) •... Includes a list of uses and appearances of Morse Code in movies, television episodes, and other popular culture.

• • 200 hours of at increasing speeds plus an ASCII-to-CW file generator program. • US Army training video 1966. • US Navy 1944.