Nippon CAPITAL: FLAG: The Sun-flag (Hi-no-Maru) consists of a red circle on a white background. ANTHEM: (de facto) Kimigayo (The Reign of Our Emperor), with words dating back to the ninth century. MONETARY UNIT: The yen ( ¥) of 100 sen is issued in coins of 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, and 500 yen, and notes of 500, 1,000, 5,000, and 10,000 yen.

¥1 = $0.00917 (or $1 = ¥109) as of 2005. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard. HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Adults' Day, 15 January; Commemoration of the Founding of the Nation, 11 February; Vernal Equinox Day, 20 or 21 March; Greenery Day, 29 April; Constitution Day, 3 May; Children's Day, 5 May; Respect for the Aged Day, 15 September; Autumnal Equinox Day, 23 or 24 September; Health-Sports Day, 10 October; Culture Day, 3 November; Labor-Thanksgiving Day, 23 November; Emperor's Birthday, 23 December. TIME: 9 pm = noon GMT. Situated off the eastern edge of the Asian continent, the Japanese archipelago is bounded on the n by the Sea of Okhotsk, on the e and s by the, on the sw by the East China Sea, and on the w by the Sea of. The total area of Japan is 377,835 sq km (145,883 sq mi). Comparatively, the area occupied by Japan is slightly smaller than the state of.

It extends 3,008 km (1,869 mi) ne –sw and 1,645 km (1,022 mi) se –nw and has a total coastline of 29,751 km (18,486 mi). The five districts are Honsh ū, Hokkaid ō, Ky ūsh ū, Shikoku, and Okinawa. Each of the five districts consists of a main island of the same name and hundreds of surrounding islands.

Third Series. NUMBER 1 r s 0 Art. Repro uctions o s o cienti. Ph h ts and Pictoria strations. JANUARY —JUNE. Named classes of published works deposited for copy right between January 1.. 1 960, and January 1.. 1 961., not reserved or di sposed of as provided.

Of the thousands of lesser islands, four are of significance: Tsushima, in the straits between and Japan; Amami Oshima, of the northern Ryukyu Islands at the southern end of the Japanese archipelago; Sado Island in the Sea of Japan off central Honsh ū; and Awaji Island, lying between Shikoku and Honsh ū. Two groups of islands returned to Japan by the in 1968 are located some 1,300 km (800 mi) due east of the Ryukyus: the Ogasawara (Bonin) Islands, about 885 km (550 mi) south of Tokyo, and the (Volcano) Islands, directly south of the Ogasawara group. Japan's principal island is Honsh ū, on which are located the capital city of Tokyo, the principal cities and plains, and the major industrial areas. This island is divided into five regions: Tohoku, from north of Kanto to Tsugaru Strait; Kanto, embracing seven prefectures in the Tokyo- region; the Chubu, or central, region, from west of Tokyo to the area; Kinki, including the important cities of,,, and Nara; and Chugoku, a narrow peninsula thrusting westward from Kinki between the Sea of Japan and the Inland Sea, which lies between southern Honsh ū and the island of Shikoku. The Japanese government maintains that the Habomai island group and Shikotan, lying just off Hokkaid ō and constituting fringe areas of the Kurils, belong to Japan and should be returned to Japanese administration.

These islands and the Kuril Islands are occupied by, whose claims are not formally recognized by Japan. Japan's capital city, Tokyo, is located on the east coast of the island of Honsh ū. The Japanese islands are the upper portions of vast mountains belonging to what is sometimes called the Circum-Pacific Ring of Fire, which stretches from to the Aleutian Islands. Mountains cover over 75% of the land's surface. Bijoy Bayanno Unicode Keyboard Layout. Landforms are steep and rugged, indicating that, geologically, Japan is still a young area. Through the central part of Honsh ū, running in a north –south direction, are the two principal mountain ranges: the Hida (or Japan Alps) and the Akaishi mountains. There are 25 mountains with peaks of over 3,000 m (9,800 ft).

The highest is the beautiful Mt. Fuji (Fuji-san), at 3,776 m (12,388 ft). Japan has 265 volcanoes (including the dormant Mt.

Fuji), of which about 20 remain active. The plains of Japan are few and small and cover only about 29% of the total land area. Most plains are located along the seacoast and are composed of alluvial lowlands, diluvial uplands, and low hills. The largest is the Kanto Plain (Tokyo Bay region), about 6,500 sq km (2,500 sq mi). Others include the Kinai Plain (Osaka-Kyoto), Nobi (Nagoya), Echigo (north-central Honsh ū), and Sendai (northeastern Honsh ū). There are four small plains in Hokkaid ō.

The population is heavily concentrated in these limited flat areas. Rivers tend to be short and swift. The longest is the Shinano (367 km/228 mi) in north-central Honsh ū, flowing into the Sea of Japan. The largest lake is Lake Biwa, near Kyoto, with an area of 672 sq km (259 sq mi).

Lake Kussharo, in the Akan National Park of Hokkaid ō, is considered the clearest lake in the world, having a transparency of 41 m (135 ft). Good harbors are limited because in most areas the land rises steeply out of the sea. Yokohama, Nagoya, and Kobe are Japan's most prominent harbors.

The Ryukyu Islands, among which Okinawa predominates, are the peaks of submerged mountain ranges. They are generally hilly or mountainous, with small alluvial plains. Japan is considered to be one of the most seismically active areas in the world; about 20% of all magnitude of six or higher earthquakes in the world take place in this region.

The country experiences an average of 1,500 minor shocks per year. One of the world's greatest recorded natural disasters was the Kanto earthquake of 1923, when the Tokyo-Yokohama area was devastated and upward of 99,000 persons died.

In 1995, a 7.2 magnitude quake shook Kobe and left over 6,400 people dead. On October 23, 2004, a series of seven earthquakes in two hours caused severe damage in northern Japan; at least 16 people were killed and over 900 were injured. In the days that followed, at least 450 lesser tremors were felt. Japan is located at the northeastern edge of the Asian monsoon climate belt, which brings much rain to the country. The weather is under the dual influence of the Siberian weather system and the patterns of the southern Pacific; it is affected by the Japan Current (Kuroshio), a warm stream that flows from the southern Pacific along much of Japan's Pacific coast, producing a milder and more temperate climate than is found at comparable latitudes elsewhere. Northern Japan is affected by the Kuril Current (Oyashio), a cold stream flowing along the eastern coasts of Hokkaid ō and northern Honsh ū.

The junction of the two currents is a bountiful fishing area. The Tsushima Current, an offshoot of the Japan Current, transports warm water northward into the Sea of Japan. Throughout the year, there is fairly high humidity, with average rainfall ranging by area from 100 cm to over 250 cm (39 –98 in). Autumn weather is usually clear and bright.

Winters tend to be warmer than in similar latitudes except in the north and west, where snowfalls are frequent and heavy. Spring is usually pleasant, and the summer hot and humid. There is a rainy season that moves from south to north during June and July. Average temperature ranges from 17 °c (63 °f) in the southern portions to 9 °c (48 °f) in the extreme north. Hokkaid ō has long and severe winters with extensive snow, while the remainder of the country enjoys milder weather down to the southern regions, which are almost subtropical.

The Ryukyus, although located in the temperate zone, are warmed by the Japan Current, giving them a subtropical climate. The typhoon season runs from May through October, and each year several storms usually sweep through the islands, often accompanied by high winds and heavy rains.

In September 2005, Typhoon Nabi hit southern Japan causing the deaths of at least 77 people and temporarily displacing more than 300,000. Hokkaid ō flora is characterized by montane conifers (fir, spruce, and larch) at high elevations and mixed northern hardwoods (oak, maple, linden, birch, ash, elm, and walnut) at lower altitudes. The ground flora includes plants common to Eurasia and. Honsh ū supports a panoply of temperate flora.

Common conifers are cypress, umbrella pine, hemlock, yew, and white pine. On the lowlands, there are live oak and camphor trees, and a great mixture of bamboo with the hardwoods. Black pine and red pine form the typical growth on the sandy lowlands and coastal areas. Shikoku and Ky ūsh ū are noted for their evergreen vegetation.

Sugarcane and citrus fruits are found throughout the limited lowland areas, with broadleaf trees in the lower elevations and a mixture of evergreen and deciduous trees higher up. Th roughout these islands are luxuriant growths of bamboo.

About 140 species of fauna have been identified. The only indigenous primate is the Japanese macaque, a small monkey found in the north. There are 32 carnivores, including the brown bear, ermine, mink, raccoon dog, fox, wolf, walrus, and seal.

There are 250 breeding bird species and 8 species of reptiles. Japan's waters abound with crabs and shrimp; great migrations of fish are brought in by the Japan and Kuril currents. There are large numbers and varieties of insects. Crack Rdp Windows 2008 R2. The Japanese beetle is not very destructive in its homeland because of its many natural enemies.

Rapid industrialization has imposed severe pressures on the environment. Japan's Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control was enacted in 1967 and the Environment Agency was established four years later. Air pollution is a serious environmental problem in Japan, particularly in urban centers.

Toxic pollutants from power plant emissions have led to the appearance of acid rain throughout the country. In the mid-1990s, Japan had the world's fourth-highest level of industrial carbon dioxide emissions, which totaled 1.09 billion metric tons per year, a per capita level of 8.79 metric tons per year. In 2000, the total of carbon dioxide emissions was at 1.18 billion metric tons. Air quality is regulated under the Air Pollution Control Law of 1968; by 1984, compensation had been provided to 91,118 air-pollution victims suffering from bronchitis, bronchial asthma, and related conditions. However, the 'polluter pays' principle was significantly weakened in 1987 as a result of years of business opposition. Nationwide smog alerts, issued when oxidant density levels reach or exceed 0.12 parts per million, peaked at 328 in 1973 but had declined to 85 (85% of which took place in the Tokyo and Osaka areas) by 1986, following imposition of stringent automobile emissions standards.

Water pollution is another area of concern in Japan. The nation has 430 cu km of renewable water resources with 64% used in farming activity and 17% used for industrial purposes. Increase in acid levels due to industrial pollutants has affected lakes, rivers, and the waters surrounding Japan. Other sources of pollution include DDT, BMC, and mercury. Environmental damage by industrial effl uents has slowed since the promulgation of the Water Pollution Control Law of 1971, but there is still widespread pollution of lakes and rivers from household sources, especially by untreated sewage and phosphate-rich detergents.

Factory noise levels are regulated under a 1968 law. Airplanes may not take off or land after 10 pm and the Shinkansen trains must reduce speed while traveling through large cities and their suburbs. Most of the nation's forests, which play a critical role in retarding runoff and soil erosion in the many mountainous areas, are protected under the Nature Conservation Law of 1972, and large areas have been reforested. Parks and wildlife are covered by the National Parks Law of 1967. In 2003, 6.8% of Japan's total land area was protected. One of the world's chief whaling nations, Japan vigorously opposed the 1982 resolution of the IWC calling for a phaseout of commercial whaling by 1986/87. However, since most of its trading partners, including the United States, supported the measure and threatened retaliatory measures if whaling continued, Japan finally agreed to comply with the ban.

According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 37 types of mammals, 53 species of birds, 11 types of reptiles, 20 species of amphibians, 27 species of fish, 25 types of mollusks, 20 species of other invertebrates, and 12 species of plants. Endangered species in Japan included the Ryukyu sika, Ryukyu rabbit, Iriomote cat, Southern Ryukyu robin, Okinawa woodpecker, Oriental white stork, short-tailed albatross, green sea turtle, and tailless blue butterfly. The Ryukyu pigeon, Bonin thrush, Japanese sea lion, and Okinawa flying fox have become extinct. The population of Japan in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 127,728,000, which placed it at number 10 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 20% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 14% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 96 males for every 100 females in the country.

The projected population for the year 2025 was 121,136,000. The population density was 338 per sq km (876 per sq mi). Japan is the only Asian country thus far with a birthrate that has declined to the level of industrial areas in other parts of the world. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005 –10 was expected to be 0.1%, a rate the government viewed as too low.

The estimated 10 births per 1,000 population in 2000 compares with about 343 births per 1,000 population in 1947. The steep drop since 1950 has been attributed to legalization of abortion, increased availability of contraceptives, and the desire to raise living standards. Even with the low birth rate, Japan is one of the most densely populated countries in the world. Urban density rates were 14,245 per sq mi (5,500 per sq mi). The UN estimated that 79% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 0.27%.

The capital city, Tokyo, had a population of 34,997,000 in that year. Other major metropolitan areas and their estimated populations include Osaka, 11,286,000; Nagoya, 3,189,000; Kitakyushu, 2,815,000;, 1,828,000; Kyoto, 1,805,000;, 1,005,000; and Sendai, 940,000.

Japanese nationals living in other countries totaled more than 600,000 in the 1990s, including some 250,000 in the United States and over 100,000 in. More than one million Japanese have emigrated since 1880; about 70% of them arrived on the US mainland and in during the decades prior to. Emigration continued after the war, encouraged by government policy as a way of relieving population pressure. By the mid-1960s, emigration had considerably decreased, as economic opportunities and living standards in Japan improved. From the 1970s –1990s, however, the number of emigrants rose, from 12,445 in 1975 to 34,492 in 1985 to 82,619 in 1992.

Immigration to Japan is generally small-scale, although the illegal entry of workers from neighboring countries has come to be regarded as a problem. Since 1975, 10,000 Indo-Chinese refugees have settled in Japan. The total number of legal migrants who entered or departed Japan in 2002 was 44,651,272, an increase of 3.4% from 2001.

The total number of migrants into Japan was 22,311,491, and the total number of people who left Japan was 22,339,781. The number of Japanese migrants increased by 1.9%, and the number of foreigners also increased by 9.8% from 2001. In the mid-2000s, there were 1.9 million foreign residents in Japan, half ethnic Koreans and Chinese who were mostly born in Japan, followed by 350,000 ethnic Japanese from, often the descendents of Japanese who emigrated. Because citizenship is based on nationality of parent rather than place of birth, registered aliens may have spent their entire lives in Japan. According to Migration News, Japan continued to struggle with Zainichi, a term that literally means 'to stay in Japan,' but is used as a shorthand for Koreans who came to Japan during Japan's colonial rule, and their descendants.

Zainichi are often considered outsiders in both Japan and Korea. Their numbers are reduced as more become naturalized Japanese. In 2003 there were 470,000 Zainichi in Japan. In 2005, the net migration rate was zero migrants per 1,000 population. Internal migration, providing a steady exodus of people from farm and mountain communities to the cities and suburbs, has been accelerating since 1952.

Most such migrants flocked to the three major population centers —the Tokyo, Osaka, and Nagoya metropolitan areas. As pollution and congestion in these areas increased, the government instituted programs to decentralize industry by directing new growth to smaller cities of the north and west, and also began efforts to improve rural living conditions and employment opportunities. Japan's Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications reported that the number of inter-prefectural migrants had decreased steadily from 1996 –2004; in 2004 inter-prefectural migration was 2.6 million persons, decreased by 2.6% in comparison with the previous year. According to Migration News, Japan began to allow temporary workers in 1986, and by 2004 lifted almost all remaining restrictions on the categories of jobs where temporary workers were permitted. In 2005 about 20% of Japanese manufacturers hired part-time workers. In 2003, Japan had an estimated 760,000 foreign workers, 1.5% of the work force. Foreigners in Japan remitted $2.8 billion officially in 2003 and an estimated $5.5 billion unoffi cially, to, Korea, the, Brazil, and.

Since the 1980s some 497 Myanma have sought asylum in Japan, usually on the grounds of religious persecution as in a Buddhist nation. In 2004 Japan had 1,960 refugees and 496 seeking asylum, mainly from and. In 2004, 99% of the population was Japanese while only 1% be-longed to other ethnic groups (mostly Korean, Chinese, Brazilian, and Filipino).

Although it is known that the Japanese are descended from many varied peoples of, there is no agreement as to origins or specific ethnic strains. In physical characteristics, the Japanese belong to the Mongoloid group, with faint admixtures of Malayan and Caucasoid strains. Waves of migration from the continental hinterland reached Japan during the end of the Paleolithic period, blending into a complicated and diverse ethnic, linguistic, and cultural system. It is believed that the Japanese have their roots in the Old Stone Age race of at least 30,000 bc. A major migration appears to have taken place in the 2nd and 3rd centuries ad, and by the 4th century this group, called the Yamato clan, established a monarchy in the present Nara prefecture. Other ethnic strains may have come from and China in the south, Korea in the west, and and in the north. The one remaining distinct ethnic group in Japan is the Ainu.

These people, living on the northern island of Hokkaid ō, are physically distinct from the contemporary Japanese, having Nordic-like features, including more pervasive facial and body hair. There is no agreement as to their origins; their current population is less than 20,000. Japanese is the official language. Most linguists agree that Japanese is in a language class by itself, although there is some inconclusive evidence that traces it to the Malayo-Polynesian language family. In vocabulary, Japanese is rich in words denoting abstract ideas, natural phenomena, human emotions, ethics, and aesthetics, but poor in words for technical and scientific expression. For these latter purposes, foreign words are directly imported and written in a phonetic system ( katakana ).

A distinct characteristic is the use of honorifics to show proper respect to the listener and his social status. Written Japanese owes its origin almost entirely to Chinese forms. Having no indigenous script, the Japanese since the 5th century have used Chinese characters, giving them both an approximate Chinese pronunciation and a Japanese pronunciation.

In addition, the Japanese invented phonetic symbols ( kana ) in the 9th century to represent grammatical devices unknown to the Chinese. Attempts have been made to reduce the complexity of the written language by limiting the number of Chinese characters used. The government has published a list of 1,850 characters for use in official communications.

Newspapers adhere to this list. According to a 2002 report by the Agency for Cultural Affairs, about 49.9% of the population practice Shintoism and 44.2% practice. Religious identities are not mutually exclusive, however, and many Japanese maintain affiliations with both a Buddhist temple and a shrine. Chinese influence waned as native institutions took on peculiarly Japanese forms. Outside court circles, local clans gained strength, giving rise to military clan influence over a weakening imperial system. The Minamoto clan gained national hegemony as it defeated the rival Taira clan in 1185, and its leader, the newly appointed Yoritomo, established a military form of government at Kamakura in 1192, a feudal system that lasted for nearly 700 years. Under the shogunate system, all political power was in the hands of the dominant military clan, with the emperors ruling in name only.

The Kamakura period was followed by the Ashikaga shogunate (1336 –1600) which saw economic growth and the development of a more complex feudalism. For over 100 years, until the end of the 16th century, continuous civil war among rival feudal lords ( daimyo ) ensued. During this time, the first contact with the Western world took place with the arrival in 1543 of Portuguese traders, and with that, the first guns were imported. Six years later, St. Francis Xavier arrived, introducing Christianity to Japan. By 1590, the country was pacified and unified by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a peasant who had risen to a top military position.

Hideyoshi also invaded Korea unsuccessfully, in 1592 –93 and in 1598, dying during the second invasion. Ieyasu Tokugawa consolidated Hideyoshi's program of centralization. Appointed shogun in 1603, Tokugawa established the Tokugawa shogunate (military dictatorship), which was to rule Japan until the imperial restoration in 1868. Tokugawa made Edo (modern Tokyo) the capital, closed Japan to foreigners except Chinese and Dutch traders (who were restricted to ) and occasional Korean diplomats, and banned Christianity. For the next 250 years, Japan enjoyed stability and a flowering of indigenous culture, although from the end of the 18th century onward, Japan came under increasing pressure from Western nations to end its isolationist policy.

The arrival of Commodore Matthew C. Perry from the United States in 1853 —with his famous 'black ships' —started a process that soon ended Japanese feudalism. The following year, Perry obtained a treaty of peace and friendship between the United States and Japan, and similar pacts were signed with Russia,, and the based on the principle of extraterritoriality. A decade of turmoil and confusion followed over the question of opening Japan to foreigners. A coalition of southern clans led by ambitious young samurai of the Satsuma and Choshu clans forced the abdication of the Tokugawa shogun and reestablished the emperor as head of the nation. In 1868, Emperor Mutsuhito took over full sovereignty.

This Meiji Restoration, as it is known, signaled the entry of Japan into the modern era. Intensive modernization and industrialization commenced under the leadership of the restoration leaders.

A modern navy and army with universal military conscription and a modern civil service based on merit formed the foundation of the new nationstate. The government undertook the establishment of industry, by importing technological assistance. In 1889, a new constitution established a bicameral legislature (Diet) with a civil cabinet headed by a prime minister responsible to the emperor. By the end of the 19th century, irreconcilable territorial ambitions brought Japan into open conflict with its much larger western neighbors. The Sino-Japanese War (1894 –95) was fought over the question of control of Korea, and the Russo-Japanese War (1904 –05) over the question of Russian expansion in and influence in Korean affairs. Japan emerged victorious in both conflicts, its victory over the Russians marking the first triumph of an Asian country over a Western power in modern times.

Japan received the territories of and the southern half of Sakhalin Island, as well as certain railway rights and concessions in Manchuria and recognition of paramount influence in Korea. The latter became a Japanese protectorate in 1905 and was annexed by Japan in 1910. During the Taisho era (1912 –26), Japan participated in a limited way in World War I, in accordance with the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902. Japan was one of the Big Five powers at the Versailles Peace Conference and in 1922 was recognized as the world's third-leading naval power at the Washington Naval Conference.

The domestic economy developed rapidly, and Japan was transformed from an agricultural to an industrial nation. Economic power tended to be held by the industrial combines ( zaibatsu ), controlled by descendants of those families that had instituted the modernization of the country decades earlier. In 1925, universal manhood suffrage was enacted, and political leaders found it necessary to take into consideration the growing influence of parties. In 1926, Emperor Hirohito ascended the throne beginning the Showa era.

By the 1930s, democratic institutions atrophied and the military-industrial complex became dominant. With severe social distress caused by the great depression, an ultranationalist ideology emerged, particularly among young army officers. Acting independently of the central government, the military launched an invasion of Manchuria in 1931, eventually establishing the puppet state of Manchukuo. In 1932, a patriotic society assassinated the prime minister, bringing an end to cabinets formed by the majority party in the Diet. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations (which had protested the Manchurian takeover) in 1933, started a full-scale invasion of China (the Second Sino-Japanese War, 1937 –45), and signed the Anti-Comintern pact with in 1936 and a triple alliance with Germany and Italy in 1940. The military leadership, viewing the former and the United States as chief barriers to Japanese expansion, negotiated a nonaggression pact with the USSR in April 1941, thus setting the stage for the attack on and other Pacific targets on 7 December of that year. Thereafter, Japanese military actions took place in the context of World War II.

With its capture of the Philippines on 2 January 1942, Japan gained control of most of East Asia, including major portions of China, Indochina, and the southwest Pacific. Japanese forces, however, could not resist the continued mobilization of the US military. A series of costly naval campaigns —including battles at Midway, Guadalcanal, and Leyte Gulf —brought an end to Japanese domination in the Pacific. By 1945, the Philippines had been recaptured, and the stage was set for a direct assault on Japan. After the US troops captured Okinawa in a blood battle, US president Harry S. Truman argued that a full invasion of Japan would prove too costly and decided on aerial attacks to force Japan into surrendering. After four months of intense bombardment with conventional weapons, the United States dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 and a second bomb on Nagasaki on 9 August.

An estimated 340,000 persons died from the two attacks and the subsequent effects of radiation. In addition, all major cities, with the exception of Kyoto, were destroyed during the war and food and supply shortages continued for several years after the surrender. On 14 August, Japan accepted the Potsdam Declaration for unconditional surrender with formal surrender documents signed aboard the USS Missouri on 2 September. After the surrender over 500 Japanese military officials committed suicide and hundreds more faced war crimes prosecution. Emperor Hirihito was not declared a war criminal and although he lost all military and political power he retained his royal title and became a symbol of the state until his death in 1989.

The subsequent occupation (1945 –52), under the direction of General, Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, began a series of ambitious reforms. Political reforms included the adoption of a parliamentary system of government based on democratic principles and universal suffrage, a symbolic role for the emperor as titular head of state, the establishment of an independent trade union, and the disarmament of the military. Economic reforms consisted of land reform, the dissolution of the zaibatsu, and economic and political rights for women. A new constitution was promulgated on 3 November 1946 and put into force on 3 May 1947. The Postwar Period.